101 Facts About Latin Grammar/Language

1.      All students need to learn the endings for nouns and verbs by memorization.

2.      The verbs duco (lead), dico (say), facio (make), and fero (bear), form the irregular imperatives: duc, dic, fac,and fer.  Ferte is the only irregular plural imperative.

3.      The adverbial form of magnus is magnopere (greatly).

4.      The subject of a sentence, anything in apposition to it, and the predicate nominative, are all nominative.

5.      The genitive is commonly used to show possession, but can also be partitive, or genitive of the whole.  e.g.  plus pecuniae - more money.

6.      The dative is chiefly indirect object, but is sometimes used for possession.  e.g.  Librum est mihi - I have a book

7.      Accusatives are used as direct object and as objects of certain prepositions.  e.g.  Amo Julliam – I love Julia.

8.      The acccusative can be used for extent of time or of space.  e.g.  quinque annos - for five years

9.      Time when or within which is expressed using the ablative with no preposition. e.g.  primo anno - in the first year

10.  The ablative of means shows with what something is done.  It takes no preposition.  e.g.  Stylo scribo - I write with a pen

11.  The ablative of manner shows how something is done. Without an adjective, it usually requires the preposition, cum.  With an adjective, cum is sometimes omitted.  e.g.  Magna (cum) laude - with great praise, cum laude - with praise

12.  The ablative of accompaniment is preceded by a preposition.  e.g.  Ambulo cum femina – I walk with a woman

13.  A participle can be used as an ablative absolute, a clause weakly connected to the rest of the sentence.  e.g.  Roma capta, lacrimavimus – Rome having been captured, we wept, Roma incendente, Nero cecinit – While Rome burned, Nero sang.

14.  The deponent verbs utor (use), fruor (enjoy), fungor (perform), potior (gain possession of), vescor (feed upon) and glorior (glory in) take ablative objects.

15.  A, ab, cum, de, e, ex, sub, in (meaning in or on), prae, pro, and sine take the ablative.  Almost all other prepositions take the accusative.

16.  The infinitive is used for indirect statement.  e.g.  Marcus dixit te venisse -  Marcus said that you had come, … te venire - you were coming,  … te venturam esse - you were going to come.  Subjects of infinitives are put in the accusative case.  In the subordinate clause, se refers to the subject of the main clause.  Eum, eam, or id refers to nouns other than the subject of the main clause.

17.  Clauses of necessity are expressed using the second periphrastic, the gerundive plus a form of esse.  The obligated party is placed in the dative of agent.  e.g.  Marco veniendum est - Marcus has to come

18.  The dative of agent is only used with the second periphrastic.  Other passive constructions take the ablative of agent with a, ab.   e.g.  Bellum gestum est a Marco – War was waged by Marcus

19.  The first periphrastic is the use of the future active participle with a form of esse to say "... going to ...” e.g.   Venturus est - He is going to come.  The first periphrastic is sometimes used to express a future subjunctive.  e.g.  timeo ne Marcus falsurus sit – I fear that Marcus will fail

20.  The double dative is the use of the dative of purpose in conjunction with the dative of reference.  e.g.  Auxilio oppido est - He is (for) an aid to the city

21.  As a general rule, when translating prepositional phrases into Latin, concrete things require a preposition, and people do not.

22.  Deponent verbs are conjugated using only passive forms.  However, they are translated actively.  Some examples and sequor (follow), conor (think), morior (die), nascor (to be born), and hortor (encourage).

23.  Audeo (dare), gaudeo (rejoice), and fido (trust) are semi-deponent.  Their perfect systems have passive forms with active meanings.  Their present systems are normal.

24.  The vocative is used for direct address.  For second declension nouns ending in –us, the vocative is formed with –e.  For nouns ending in –ius, it is formed with an –i.  For all other nouns, the vocative matches the nominative.  e.g.  Julia, eamus – Julia, lets go, Marce, dic mihi – Marcus, talk to me

25.  The locative expresses place where for small islands and cities.  e.g.  Romae - in Rome, Athenis - in Athens.

26.  The volative subjunctive is a present subjunctive translated "Let..." The negative is expressed with ne.  e.g.  eamus – let’s go, ne dicamus falsiter nunc – let us not talk falsely, now

27.  The optative subjunctive is translated “May…” or "Would that…".  Impossible wishes are placed secondary sequence, and introduced by utinam (negative, utinam ne).  For possible wishes primary sequence is used, and the utinam may be omitted (negative wishes are introduced by ne).  e.g.  exeat – may he go, Utinam rex essem – Would that I were king, utinam ne natus essem – Would that I had not been born

28.  The potential subjunctive expresses ability  "...might...".  e.g.  vincat Romam – he might conquer Rome

29.  The deliberative subjunctive expresses a rhetorical question: Quid facias? - What am I going to do?

30.  Purpose clauses, introduced by ut for positive, ne for negative, follow sequence of tenses and require either present or imperfect subjunctive.  e.g.  veni Romam ut viderem Claudium - I came to Rome to see Claudius

31.  The accusative supine can be used in show simple purpose constructions with verbs of motion in the main clause.  e.g.  veni Romam visum Claudium - I came to Rome to see Claudius

32.  The gerund or gerundive can show purpose in two ways:

a.      genitive preceding causa or gratia.  e.g.  veni Claudi videndi causa - I came to see Claudius

b.      accusative following ad.  e.g.  veni ad Claudium videndam -  came to see Claudius

33.  Relative purpose clauses involve change of subject between the main clause and the subordinate clause.  It is introduces by qui instead of ut.  A purpose clause containing a comparative is introduced by quo.  e.g.  Misit Gaium qui Galliam vinceret – He sent Gaius to conquer Gaul, Utor sagittis quo celerius vincam – I use arrows to win more swiftly

34.  Result clauses, introduced by ut for the positive, and ut non for the negative, follow expressions related to notable qualities of people or objects.  They show the result of the notable qualities.  e.g.  Marcus est tam fortis ut semper vincet – Marcus is so strong that he always wins

35.  Result words are tam, ita, sic, meaning so, tantus - so great, talis - of such kind, and tot - so many.  These words signal a likely result clause ahead

36.  Fear clauses are introduced ut for negative and ne for positive.  They relate the result of a fear that is expressed in the main clause.  e.g.  Timeo ne Roma maneat – I fear that Rome does not remain

37.  Indirect commands are often expressed using noun purpose clauses, introduced by ut for affirmative, and ne for negative.    impero (command), permitto, mando (order), and persuadeo (persuade) take a dative object and a noun purpose clause.  e.g.  Persuadeo Marco ut maneat - I persuade Marcus to stay

38.  Hortor (urge, encourage), oro (beg), moneo (warn), and rogo  (ask) require an accusative object plus a noun purpose clause.  e.g.  Oro Marcum ut maneat – I beg Marcus to stay

39.  Peto, quaero (seek) and postulo (demand) take a, ab plus the ablative, and a noun purpose clause.  e.g.  Peto a Marco ut maneat – I seek from Marcus that he stay

40.  Jubeo (order), patior (allow), volo (wish, be willing), nolo (be unwilling), and malo  (prefer) take an accusative object plus ia complementary nfinitive.  e.g.  Jubeo Marcum manere – I order Marcus to stay.  Note that the use of the inperative form of nolo plus a complementary infinitive is the regular Latin method for expressing a negative command.  e.g.  Noli discedere, Marce – Don’t leave, Marcus (literally, Be unwilling to leave, Marcus)

41.  A clause introduced by cum, meaning "since" is called a cum causal clause.  The verb in such a clause is placed in the subjunctive, following sequence of tenses.  e.g.  Cum Caesar vicisset, Romam rexit – Since Caesar had conquered, he ruled Rome

42.  A clause introduced by cum, meaning "while", is called a cum temporal clause.  The verb is generally placed in the subjunctive for past action, and the indicative for present action.  Definite past time can also be expressed with an indicative verb.  e.g. Cum Nero regit, Roma patitur – While Nero rules, Rome suffers, Cum Caesar rexerit, Roma bona erat – While Caesar ruled, Rome was good

43.  A clause introduced by cum, meaning "although", is called a cum concessive clause.  The verb is placed in the subjunctive, following sequence of tenses.  Often, the main clause is introduced by tamen, meaning “nevertheless”.  e.g.  Cum Romani multos necaverint, tamen Pyrrhus vicit – Although the Romans killed many, nevertheless Pyrrhus won

44.  After verbs of hindering or preventing, Quominus can always introduce a subordinate clause.  Quin can follow a negative main verb, and ne can follow a positive main verb.  The subordinate clause is placed in the subjunctive, following sequence of tenses.  e.g. Impedio te quominus eas – I hinder you from going

45.  As an alternative to the use of a subjunctive clause, Prohibeo (prohibit) can be used with an accusative object, and an objective infinitive.  Prohibeo te ire – I prohibit you to go

46.  The following adjectives require ablative objects.  Dignus (worthy of), plenus (full of), contentus (happy with), and fretus (relying on) take the ablative.  Plenus may also take a genitive.  e.g.  Misit virum dignum laude – He sent a man worthy of praise

47.  Conditional sentences have two parts: the protasis, which expresses a condition, and the apodasis, which expresses the result if the condition is true.  There are three major categories of conditional statements.  Future less vivid conditional sentences express conditions which possibly, but improbably could occur in the future.  Factual conditional sentences express conditions that are not unlikely to occur.  Finally, condition-contrary-to-fact conditional statements express a condition that can’t occur.

48.  The future less vivid conditional clause is translated using a “should... would” phrasing.  Both parts of the sentence are placed in the present subjunctive.  e.g.  Si Caesar vincatur, Pompeius gaudeat – If Caesar should be conquered, Pompey would rejoice

49.  Factual conditional statements are translated using the indicative.  The future more vivid involves a condition that might yet happen at some future time.  It is translated using the future indicative.  e.g.  Si Juilia lacrimabit, lacrimabo – If Julia cries, I will cry.  Note that the English uses a false present in the protasis.  If the action of the verb in the protasis is completed before the action in the apodasis, then the future perfect indicative is used for the condition.  e.g Si Roma fefellerit, lacrimabo – If Rome falls (will have fallen), I will cry.  Past conditional statements may also be constructed.  e.g. Si pecuniam habui, ad thermas ivi – If I had the money, I went to the baths.

50.  Conditions that are not factual often express a wish.  The verbs are placed in the subjunctive in secondary sequence.  e.g. Si adfuisses, Roma vicisset.  If only you had been here, Rome would have conquered, Si adesset, fabulam narraret – If he were here, he would tell the story

51.  Nisi is used to negate the entire protasis of a conditional statement, si … non is used to negate a single word.  E.g. Si Roma non naves fecerit, vincietur – If Rome does not build ships, she will be conquered, Nisi Carthago Romam vicerit, Roma magna erit – Unless Carthage conquers Rome, Rome will be great

52.  Clauses following verbs expressing negative doubt, are introduced by quin, and follow sequence of tenses.  Verbs expressing positive doubt are followed by a double indirect question.  e.g.  Non dubito quin Roma semper stet – I do not doubt that Rome will always stand, Dubito an Roma maneat – I doubt that Rome will remain

53.  The double indirect question involves a phrase such as “whether...or”.  In a positive sense, it is translated using an or utrum for the first part, and ne or an for the second.  In a negative sense, it is introduced by necne.  The verb is placed in the subjunctive, following sequence of tenses.

54.  Adjectives like avidus, cupidus (greedy), and memor (mindful of) take genitive objects.  e.g.  memor antiqui belli – mindful of the old war

55.  The subjective genitive feature a genitive noun that is performing an action.  e.g.  Adventus Caesaris - The arrival of Caesar.

56.  The objective genitive features a genitive noun that is receiving some action.  e.g.  Caedes Marci – the slaughter of Marcus

57.   Verbs of remembering (memini) and forgetting (obliviscor) will generally require a genitive object when they convey a sense of being mindful of, or disregarding from memory.  When the verb literally means to remember or to forget, it, instead, requires an accusative object.  e.g.  Obliviscere ejus – Forget her, Vix possum meminisse avum meus – I can barely remember my grandfather

58.  The genitive of the charge is used with certain impersonal verbs.  The guilty party is placed in the accusative, and the crime is placed in the genitive.  e.g.  Scelae me paenitet - It regrets me of the crimes (I regret the crimes).

59.  Causa, grratia (for the sake of), instar (the likeness of), tenus (as far as), pridie (the day before), and postridie (the day after) all take the genitive.  e.g.  instar montis – the likeness of a mountain

60.  Compound verbs and ones with these meanings take the dative: favor, help, please, trust, believe, persuade, pardon, spare, endure, resist, envy, threaten, command, obey, serve, harm, indulge, and marry.  A notable exception is jubeo (order, command) which takes the accusative.  e.g.  Marcus credidit Fabio – Marcus trusted Fabius.

61.  The ethical dative is a weak dative of reference qualifying ownership of a subsequent statement.  e.g. Mihi, Caesar imperator bonus erat - As far as I am concerned, Caesar was a great general. 

62.  The dative follows similis (like, similar to).  e.g. Undae fuerant montibus similes – The waves were like mountains.

63.  The double accusative involves two accusatives which both act as an object of the verb.  e.g. Nominant Caesar consulem - They make Caesar consul.

64.  The ablative of comparison can only be used to compare to a nominative or accusative.  Melior Marco sum - i'm better then Marcus.

65.  Using quam and copying the case of the noun compared to works for any case.  Lex melior est Athenis quam Romae – The law is better for Athens than for Rome.

66.  Unus (one) is the Latin root of union, unitary, uniform, and onion.

67.  Aqua (water) is the Latin root of aqueduct, aquarium, and sewer.

68.  Domus (home) is the Latin root of domicile, domestic, and granny.

69.  -fy at the end of an English word comes from the Latin verb, facio (do, make).

70.  Arboreal meaning tree-related, comes from the Latin, arbor (tree).

71.  Auriferous means gold-bearing.  It is from the Latin, aurum (gold), and fero (carry).

72.  Journal comes from dies (day) through French. 

73.  Vinegar comes from acer, meaning sharp.

74.  Pilgrim comes from ager, meaning field.

75.  Dime and dozen are from decem, meaning ten.

76.  Porcine means pig-like. Porcus (pig) is also root of porpoise.

77.  Bovine is cow-like (from bos), and you see birds at an aviary (from avis).

78.  A, ab means from, ac means and, ad means to.

79.  Aetas means age, aestas means summer, aestus means heat.

80.  Tangere means to touch, tegere means to form, fasten.

81.  Timere means to fear, temere means rashly, tumere means to swell.

82.  If you are somnambulant, you are sleepwalking.

83.  The future passive infinitive is the supine plus the helping verb, iri.

84.  Lactic is from lac, meaning milk.

85.  Negative commands are formed with noli and the infinitive.  e.g. Noli timere – Don’t fear.

86.  In forming the subjunctive tenses, note that the secondary sequence tenses are all formed from infinitives.

87.  Compare Latin and English comparatives -ior, -er.

88.  Don't forget that the neuter comparative is -ius.

89.  Similis (like), dissimilis (unlike), facilis (easy), difficilis (hard), gracilis (graceful), and humilis (humble) form irregular superlatives.  The –l in the stem is doubled, and -imus is added.  e.g. Julia gracillima est – Julia is very graceful.

90.  If a certamen question requires a Latin answer, particularly unus, duo, or tres, be sure to meet the conditions of case, number, and gender that the question demands.

91.   volo, vis, vult, volumus, vultis, volunt means to wish.  nolo, non vis, non vult, nolumus, non vultis, nolunt means to not wish.   malo, mavis, mavult, malumus, mavultis, malunt  means to  prefer.

92.  The passive forms of the Latin verb, facio, are formed from the Latin verb, fio.

93.  The future imperative can be translated as “You shall…”, or “He / She shall…”.  The endings for second person active are –to for singular and –tote for plural.  Second person passive uses –tor for singular and has no form for plural.  The third person endings are –to, -nto, –tor, and –ntote.  One way to remember these is the English word, memento, which is actually a Latin future imperative.

94.  The adverbial form of multus is multum.

95.  The adverbial form of facilis is facile.

96.  Domus, humus, and rus have locative forms.  Domi translates “at home”.  Humi, translates “on the ground”.  Ruri translates “in the country”.  Domum translates “to home”.  Humum, “to the ground”.  Rurem, “to the country”.  Domo, “from home”.  Humo, “from the ground”.  Rure, “from the country”.

97.  Unus (one), neuter (neither), nullus (none), alius (another's), uter (each), ullus (any), solus (alone), totus (all), alter (another) are called adjectives of special declension.  They use the endings, -ius, and –i for genitive and dative singular, respectively.  e.g. Unius – of one, alteri – to another

98.  The comparative of bonus is melior.  The superlative is optimus.  The comparative of malus is pejor.  The superlative is pessimus.

99.  The comparative of magnus is major.  The superlative is maximus.  The comparative of parvus is minor.  The superlative is minimus.

100.     Aureus (golden), idoneus (suitable), and egregious (outstanding) are introduced by the word magis to form the comparative, and by the word maxime to form the superlative.  e.g magis idoneus – more suitable, Maxime aureus – very golden

101.     Quam followed by the superlative means "as...as possible".  e.g. Quam optima femina est - The woman is a good as possible.